Code switching or code mixing in THE CONVERSATION OF “BUKAN EMPAT MATA” TALK SHOW TV PROGRAM
selasa,27-06-2012
A. Problem Statement
Related to sociolinguistic lecturing, this simple research is conducted in order to fulfill the requirement of the lecturer that obligate all the students to do this kind of task in the form of paper as the final test substitution.
Now days we are familiar with some expressions, or conversations that involving two or more language, more over in the world of entertainment like talk show, interview, and competition programs. Here are some conversation taken from talk show in our own environtmen recently.
· “semisal habis shooting and stripping tu kan makan waktu hampr lima bulan, trus kemaren pas selesai sebelum new year, aku tu ke bali trus ke puket trus ke bali lagi gitu lho,” (Indonesian/English).
· “good evening how are you makin lama makin oke saja”. (Indonesian/English).
· "talk about cuek, kamu tu pernah memerankan filem hantu, pernah merasa ketakutan gak sich?" (Indonesian/English).
· Ada yang bilang kamu adalah the next suzanna karena mempunyai bola mata yang mirip dengan suzanna? (Indonesian/English).
· “The proceedings went smoothly, ba? (Tagalog/English)
In linguistics, this phenomena is called code mixing or code switching. Code switching is a widely observed phenomenon especially seen in monolingual, bilingual, multilingual and multicultural communities. This thing is often happen in our social life and is rarely realized and studied by a number of people in common but as a linguist or linguist researcher this cultural phenomenon will be a topic that is interesting to discuss and to study more. Hence we want to make this small research to reveal those phenomena easier and lighter to understand by all social ages, not only the linguist. Now it is difficult for us to avoid code mixing. But in using code switching we should know the right way to or the constraints to avoid the confusion and consolidation in understanding the language.
Khnert, Yim, Nett, Kan, and Duran (2005) state that code-switching is an effective communication mode available to proficient bilingual speakers for interactions with other individuals who share both languages.
Crystal suggests that “code, or language, switching occurs when an individual who is bilingual alternates between two languages during his/her speech with another bilingual person” (1987). Code-switching can take on several forms including variation of sentences, phrases from both languages, and switching in a long narrative. Here in This paper we will discusses about code switching or code mixing and the underlying reasons of code switching.
From the explanation above we can conclude that code switching is a switching in language use by change language, the dialect, language class, and this switch is happen in a context of a sentence or a problem.
The object or this simple research is a talk show program that always involves some artists with their great talent or just be invited to share some experiences and talk about gossip or some recent issue spreading in their daily life. The name of the program is bukan empat mata. In the beginning, the name of this program was empat mata but after getting some complains from many part of social and entertain word, finally it changes it name became bukan empat mata. Bukan empat mata often invites artists that have special experiences or issues that is interesting to discuss. The presenter Mr. Tukul arwana will always deliver so many unique things from the way he says, he acts, and his fantastic behaviors that always make the audiences smile up through the program. The program is designed in a semi-comedy talk show so the presenter are demanded to present the unique, funny, and some times extraordinary behavior even strange. It is done with many ways like starting with uttering English wise word, playing a short drama, or just playing a joke which these things are done to make the audiences laughing and enjoy the program. In communicating with the guests Mr.Tukul often switches from Indonesian language to English and sometimes Javanese because he comes from central java so his can speak both Indonesian and Javanese. The guest is also frequently switch from Indonesian language to English language ant this is the reason why the researcher takes bukan empat mata program as the object of the discussion in this paper.
B. Discussion
Code switching is done deliberately due to different situations. This switching allows one to predict language choice; there is a "simple almost one-to-one relationship" (Gumperz , 1982) between extra-linguistic parameters and the appropriate language for this situation. The above sentence “The proceedings went smoothly, ba? (Tagalog/English) is used to express solidarity to the new comer who is an educated person. This is categorized as emblematic or tag switching. The Tagalog tag ba can also depict an ethnic identity marker. But we do not find this kind of switching in the talk show so we will not discuss it further. We will discus about the other two types of language switching, intra-sentential switching and inter-sentential switching. (holmes :48)
People use different code to elaborate the purpose of the interaction. In this opening conversation the presenter Mr Tukul are having a short conversation with his girl Partner named cyntia. It is done to open the talk show and to deliver the theme or the topic that will be discussed or exposed along the program. Let’s see the transcript below.
Cyntia : humming crying (act as a sad girl)
Mr Tukul : udah gak usah dipikirin itu kan masih ada yang muda di
sampingnya, what’s wrong with you?
Cyntia : aku tu di gosipin ma brad pit mas? Aku di tanyain banyak orang
kenapa sih cyntia mau jadi partnernya mas tukul, mas tukul kan
mukanya sudah hancur lebur mukanya, aku makannya sedih mas
trus habis itu katanya rambutnya kaya kotak amal.
Mr Tukul : orang itu posisinya dimana? Biar tak gigit, rabies dia nanti……
In this first conversation we find word what’s wrong with you? as a language switching from Indonesian sentence before, delivered by the presenter Mr Tukul in opening the talk show. It is intra-sentential switching as it happens in the level of sentence. the factor that influence this switching is to create the good first impression and to build a closeness with his partner named Cyntia.
Mr Tukul : How are you, makin lama makin oke saja nih. Bagi dong buat istri
saya susi biar badannya seperti kamu, bisa ramping kecil kaya
gantungan kunci gitu
Aisha : bisa dibaea kemana mana dong?
Mr Tukul : kalau perlu tinggal di starter aja
Aisha : aa.. apa yah, makannya teratur, olahraga, dan gak usah mikiri yang
pusing – pusing.
When Mr Tukul greet his beautiful guest Aisya Shara. He said “how are you makin lama makin oke saja”. He uses words in English language and Indonesian language interchangeably. Here in the talk show Indonesian is used to deliver almost of the program. While English language is used as the supporting resource when talking or explaining something in order to add the sense and impression of something explained and to build a closeness. What Mr. Tukul did is categorized into as intra-sentential switching. And it is done to create chemistry with his guest Aisha shara.
In the next conversation we also find the other use of English language as a switch from Indonesian language, when mr tukul asks his guest about how her body can be so slim and nice looking, while asking for the tips for his wife susi.
Aisha : makannya teratur, olahraga, dan gak usah mikiri yang pusing - pusing
Mr Tukul : wues.. luar biasa saya sangat setuju makan teratur tidur teratur gak usah
banyak berpikir yang negative pokokny mengalir aja..
Aisha : keep smiling aja.
Mr tukul : keep smiling… everyone but.. to love… (confuse n humming)
Aisha : apa itu? Artinya apa?
Mr tukul : berikanlah senyummu pada orang banyak tapi berikanlah cintamu hanya
untuk satu orang saja susi similikitiy…
Here, in the conversation above Aisha switches into English in answering Mr. Tukul question. It is not because anything but style and her habitual life that can not be separated from English language so it automatically happen. This switch is included in intra-sentential switching, as she switches not in a whole sentence but only a part of the sentence. and then Mr Tukul switch from English into Indonesian language, because he is not capable in delivering the right words in englis so he switches into indonesia in a whole sentence. it is included in inter-sentential switching.
Then Mr. Tukul and Aisha are discussing about Aisha’s hobby. Her hobby is visiting beach. She explains the reason of his choice to visit the beach. In describing her reason again Aisha switch from Indonesian language into English as the transcript below:
Aisha : Air, aku suka air karena air itu bikin relax apalagi semisal habis
Shooting and stripping tu kan makan waktu hampr lima bulan, trus
kemaren pas selesai sebelum new year, aku tu ke bali trus ke puket trus ke
bali lagi gitu lho”
Mr Tukul : sebelum apa?
Aisha : new year
Mr Tukul : new yearrrrrm (English dialect)
Aisha : mas biasa aja sebelum new year aku tu ke bali trus puket trus ke bali lagi
Mr Tukul : luar biasa.. enak itu semua. pantai semua
Aisha : iya enak diving
Mr Tukul : betul diving snorkeling nggulungguming njengking
Aisha : mati deh akhirnya.. (smiling n laughing)
We find some words in Aisha’s sentence like word New Year, relax, and shooting. It is including in code mixing or switching that happen in a proficient bilingual trough word in sentence. This kind of code mixing is categorized as intra-sentential switching. It may happen also because the position or the social class of both the presenter and the guest are equal so they speak in the more flexible and more free way. While the purposes I have mentioned above because it is a comedy talk show some time the presenter use a switch in a wrong way just to create a fantastic atmosphere in that talk show. As we can see in the transcript, what is done by Mr Tukul in facing Aisha’s word diving is included in this variant, he switches in order to make the audients laughing and happy. It is done by mentioning word nggulunguming, njengking. For those who are not Indonesian people, it will be very confusing because they do not understand what actually the meaning or the context of those two words. Why both of the word appear will be easy to understand for those who are Indonesian people more over Javanese people because they have already known about the words, the back ground, and the context of those two word.
The next data is from the conversation between the presenter and his guest aisha which is talking about her experiences in acting in a ghost film as below:
Mr Tukul :Talk about cuex kamu kan pernah memerankan filem hantu, pernah merasa
ketakutan ngga? monggo.
Aisha : Ketakutan sih pasti ada tapi kalau pas syutingnya sih nggak karena kan
rame di depannya tapi kalau pas mau ke kamar mandi pasti minta di
temenin aku takut banget
Mr Tukul : Mbok minta suruh saya untuk minta nemenin kamu biasa lihat hantu kok
liat saya gak takut si?
Aisha : Karena mas tukul jinak
Mr Tukul : Jinak - jinak ayam angrem
From this data we may state that the phenomena appearing is language switching from English to Indonesian and then switch again into Javanese. It is intra sentential switching. The factors influence the switching are the election of the suitable word, the difficulty to find the synonym, and the adjustment of the comfort of the speaker, means that the speaker is feeling comfort by using these words. Although may be the speaker is also do not really proficient in speaking the language either English or Javanese.
Mr Tukul : Ada yang bilang kamu adalah the next suzanna karena mempunyai bola
mata yang mirip dengan suzanna.gimana menurut kamu? matanya bluet?
Aisha : Kalau mirip sama bunda suzanna si nggak yah Karen beliau lebih
professional jauhlah,….
Mr Tukul : Aku yakin kamu bisalah.. apanamanya… mengikutin acting jejaknya.
Again in this conversation we find language switch from English to Indonesia. It is including in intra sentential switching because it involves some switchings in the level of sentence. The factors that influence the appearance of the switch is to increase the closeness among the speakers, adjustment to the audience or the person he is speaking with or to train his ability in speaking foreign language in this case is English language.
Another type of language switching is inter-sentential switching. It is a switch that happen in a whole sentence like what has been done by Mr Tukul above in describing the smiling wise word in English and then switch to Indonesian language in order to deliver the point and the moral message to the women he is speaking with Aisha.
Another example if inter-sentential switching is my own case in teaching my student in my boarding house. Once I found that many students did not understand my explaining the concept of “mabni majhul” or passive voice structure in Arabic. They were able to identify the structure in the paragraphs in the handouts but they were still confusing about what actually the meaning of mabni majhul. To end the students’ confusion, I switched into Javanese. What I did is classified as intra-sentential switching. This switching is commonly used only when speaking to bilinguals. I myself in this case act as the bilingual that acquiring Indonesian language and Javanese. Holmes asserts that “only proficient bilinguals switch within sentences” (46).
On the one hand, some time myself code switch because I am not proficient bilinguals yet. In many occasions, I struggle to find the Javanese phrases or dictions when talking. The sentence like “anda kudu seperti ini” appeared when i deliver some descriptions. Because I switch at sentence boundaries, it is called as inter-sentential switching (Holmes, 46).
People do code switching to respect the addressee. Each of the codes represents or symbolizes a set of social meanings. This type of switching has been called metaphorical switching. The speaker convey affective meaning as well as information (Holmes, 42-43). The sentence Apa “panjenengan” sudah dengar tentang perubahan peraturan perusahaan ? clearly shows how a fluent Javanese speaker who is currently using Bahasa Indonesia with another older Javanese switch to “Panjenengan” (kamu) to show respect.
C. Conclusion
People are often unaware of the fact that they code –switch. The change in feature of the social setting, the topic of discussion, the aspect of purpose of interaction may be the reasons for code switching. Even though reactions to code switching style are negative in many communities, this linguistic phenomenon can be a good control of both codes.
D. References
Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University
Press: Cambridge.
Devi, Kanya. Code-switching and code mixing. http://originalresearch.blog.uns.ac.id/2012/06/30.
Gumperz, John J. (ed.) (1982.) Language and Social Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Holmes, Janet. (2008). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman
Hesitation disfluencies in spontaneous speech:
The meaning of um
Martin Corley and Oliver W. Stewart
Philosophy, Psychology, and Language Sciences
University of Edinburgh
Martin.Corley@ed.ac.uk
In Press, Language and Linguistics Compass
Human speech is peppered with ums and uhs, among other signs of hesitation in the planning
process. But are these so-called fillers (or filled pauses) intentionally uttered by speakers, or are
they side-effects of difficulties in the planning process? And how do listeners respond to them? In
the present paper we review evidence concerning the production and comprehension of fillers such
as um and uh, in an attempt to determine whether they can be said to be “words” with “meanings”
that are understood by listeners. We conclude that, whereas listeners are highly sensitive to
hesitation disfluencies in speech, there is little evidence to suggest that they are intentionally
produced, or should be considered to be words in the conventional sense.
HESITATION DISFLUENCIES
Hesitation disfluencies in spontaneous speech: The meaning of um
When humans communicate, their messages are conveyed by more than just the words they
use. They can, for example, use gesture to indicate what a phrase such as “this one” refers to,
or change their tone of voice to show that the assertion that they “love linguistics” is not to be
taken at face value. As well as these (presumably deliberate) additional components of
communication, the words of unprepared spoken language are likely to be accompanied by a
range of unintentional errors. If, for example, a speaker exchanges the onsets of two words,
by perhaps saying “darn bore” when intending to say “barn door”, it is highly unlikely that
the exchange is intentional, and the occurrence of accidental speech errors like this may
inform us about the nature of speech planning (e.g. Hartsuiker et al. 2005). Between these
extremes of intentionality are disfluencies, or the false starts, repetitions, and hesitations that
accompany the words that speakers plan and utter. Averaging across several studies, Fox Tree
(1995) estimated that approximately 6% of words uttered are, or are affected by, some form
of disfluency (see also Bortfeld et al 2001). These disfluencies may not always be accidental:
It has been argued that some types of disfluency should be counted among the tools the
speaker has for communicating to the listener, alongside things such as tone of voice (others,
such as false starts, may be due to speakers editing their own speech). Chief among the
potentially communicative disfluencies are the so-called fillers, such as um and uh, which
(together with prolongations and pauses) mark a hesitation on the part of the speaker. In this
paper, we investigate the role played by hesitation in human communication, with a particular
focus on fillers and the communicative goals they may serve.
Producing Hesitation Disfluencies
Hesitation phenomena such as fillers are most likely to occur at the beginning of an utterance
or phrase, presumably as a consequence of the greater demand on planning processes at these
junctures (Barr 2001; Beattie 1979; Maclay & Osgood 1959). The view that cognitive load is
an important predictor of disfluency is supported by the fact that disfluencies are found to
occur more often before longer utterances (Oviatt 1995; Shriberg 1996), and when the topic
is unfamiliar (Bortfeld et al 2001; Merlo & Mansur 2004). Cognitive load is also implicated
when we look at hesitations on a word-by-word basis. Investigations of where disfluencies
such as fillers occur throughout utterances have established that they are more likely to occur
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before content words (Maclay & Osgood 1959), such as low-frequency color names (Levelt
1983). However, Beattie and Butterworth (1979) came to a different conclusion when they
investigated the distributional properties of disfluencies across a set of recordings of two-
person conversations. They showed that both low-frequency content words and those rated
as contextually improbable were likely to be preceded by hesitations such as fillers; when
frequency was held constant, contextual probability still predicted disfluency. Rather than
attributing disfluency to cognitive load, Beattie and Butterworth suggested that speakers
might be aware of an element of choice in selecting words with low contextual probability,
and were more likely to be disfluent for this reason. Choice was also implicated in a study by
Schachter et al. (1991) in which lectures in the natural sciences, social sciences, and
humanities were recorded and analyzed for numbers of fillers per minute. Disfluency
differed between topics, with the natural sciences resulting in the least and the humanities in
the most frequent use of fillers. However, when the lecturers were interviewed on general
topics, their rates of disfluency did not differ. Schachter et al. attributed the differences in
lecture disfluency rates to the fact that there were fewer linguistic options in the sciences,
causing lecturers to hesitate less as they selected appropriate terms. They later corroborated
their claims by measuring vocabulary size in lectures, learned articles, and topic-related
journalism (Schachter et al. 1994), showing that there were indeed fewer terms used in the
sciences.
So far, we have been speaking about cognitive load and choice as if they were different, but it
is of course the case that a higher number of options to choose from could result in an
increased cognitive load. In a detailed experimental investigation, Oomen and Postma (2001)
manipulated speech rate, using a task modified from Levelt (1983; see also Martin et al.
1989). Participants were required to describe the progress of a dot which moved either
quickly or slowly over a set of pictures connected by a network of paths. Although there was
significant evidence of increased cognitive load at the faster speech rate (for example,
participants were more likely to omit syntactically obligatory constituents), hesitation
disfluencies showed an interesting pattern: Participants were more likely to repeat words, but
no more likely to use fillers such as uh, in the fast conditions. Oomen and Postma suggest
that the increase in repetitions can be explained by Blackmer and Mitton’s (1991)
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“autonomous restart capacity”: If the cognitive processes that result in a phonetic plan fail to
keep up with articulation, the articulation of the existing phonetic plan is restarted, causing
words to be articulated more than once. However, the use of fillers does not appear to be
subject to a default strategy such as this one. In fact, cognitive load alone does not appear to
explain their production.
In a study designed to explore the issue of choice further, Schnadt and Corley (submitted)
used a variant of Oomen and Postma’s (2001) network task in which the speech rate remained
constant but the items pictured at the nodes of the network varied. Each picture either had
one or had several potential names, and the lexical frequency of the (most likely) name was
either high or low. Schnadt and Corley found that hesitation phenomena such as
prolongations and fillers increased in the words just before multiple-named or low-frequency
items. In a second experiment, participants completed a naming task during which they were
exposed to the preferred name of each picture before doing the network task itself. This was
designed to reduce choice when describing the networks. Although the general pattern of
results remained the same, with more hesitation disfluency for difficult-to-name items, in this
experiment the numbers of fillers didn’t increase for multiple-named pictures, presumably
because participants already had a name in mind. Schnadt and Corley concluded that fillers
were more likely to occur where the speaker had a choice of what to name a picture, perhaps
because the speaker anticipated a longer delay in these circumstances, consistent with a
proposal by Smith and Clark (1993).
The evidence above suggests that disfluencies may not necessarily all be automatic (i.e. part
of an underlying mechanism) in their relation to an increased cognitive load. Some of them –
notably, fillers – may be a part of the speaker’s expressive armory. Further support for this
view comes from the fact that disfluency rates vary with context: Speakers tend to be more
disfluent overall when addressing other humans than when addressing machines, and more
disfluent still in dialog than in monologue situations (Oviatt 1995, although 77% of the
variance in disfluency in these studies is accounted for by utterance length). In a detailed
investigation of the circumstances under which disfluency occurs, Bortfeld et al. (2001)
analyzed a recorded collection of task-oriented dialogs. Among other factors, they found that
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the roles participants played (of either describing images or attempting to find the images that
matched the descriptions) greatly influenced the numbers of disfluencies, and particularly
fillers, produced, regardless of utterance length or complexity. Additional studies have
shown that the disfluencies people use do seem to indicate something about the message that
is being conveyed: For example, when speakers are asked to rate their own confidence in
answers they have just given to general knowledge questions, less confident answers are
likely to have been marked by an utterance-initial hesitation including a filler (Smith & Clark
1993; Brennan & Williams 1995; Swerts & Krahmer 2005).
The most explicit claim that fillers serve a communicative function, effectively as words in
the speaker’s vocabulary, comes from Clark and Fox Tree (2002), who argue that um and uh
should be considered as integral to the information the speaker is trying to convey, although
they do not add to the propositional content, or primary message. Instead, fillers are part of a
collateral message, in which the speaker is commenting on her performance (Clark 1994;
2002). In a detailed argument, Clark and Fox Tree (2002: 103) claim that fillers conform to
the “phonology, prosody, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics of English words”. They can be
used to transmit a variety of interpersonal messages, such as “speakers want to keep the
floor”, and should therefore be considered members of the word class of interjections, like ah
and oh. Moreover, Clark and Fox Tree argue that um and uh serve different functions: Um is
used when the speaker is having greater difficulty than uh. This assertion is in part supported
by the fact that ums are followed by longer pauses than uhs in several corpora of spontaneous
speech (although the generality of these findings has been challenged by O’Connell and
Kowal 2005; and it should also be noted that in two of the three corpora examined by Clark
and Fox Tree, pause length was subjectively determined by the original transcribers).
Despite Clark and Fox Tree’s arguments, the evidence for a communicative account of
hesitation phenomena remains circumstantial. It is true that fillers tend to occur in situations
where there is uncertainty or choice, whether the uncertainty is about the best word with
which to name a picture or about the name of the capital of Romania. But this does not prove
that they are used by speakers to signal, for example, that there will be a delay in the speech
stream due to uncertainty, except in the sense that smoke signals fire. In the cases that we
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have considered, delays are in any case most likely highly correlated with uncertainty about
what to say next. For example, in the recorded speech examined by Bortfeld et al. (2001),
dialog partners describing pictures will undoubtedly have a more challenging task
formulating utterances than those verifying descriptions. Similarly, finding the answer to a
question may result in a substantial hesitation, which may be marked by a disfluent pause or
filler. In general, it is hard to determine the reason that a speaker is disfluent, especially if the
investigation is carried out after the fact from a corpus of recorded speech (although more
experimental approaches have been taken by, for example, Barr 2001; Oomen & Postma
2001; Schnadt & Corley submitted). For that reason, many researchers have focused on the
comprehension of disfluent language: What, of anything, do disfluencies such as fillers
communicate to the listener?
Understanding Speech with Hesitation Disfluencies
A consequence of the view that fillers such as um and uh are words, as suggested by Clark &
Fox Tree (2002), is that they should be treated by the listener as a part of the message, just
like any other word. And just like any other word, they should contribute to the meaning of
the message, in the sense that the message would not be identical if the filler were not
present. This suggestion is a radical departure from earlier views of speech comprehension,
which assumed that disfluencies were noise in the signal (Brennan & Schober 2001: 275).
For example, computational approaches have typically focused on the identification of
disfluencies so that they could be filtered from the representation of the intended utterance
(e.g. Charniak & Johnson 2001).
Potential support for the suggestion that disfluencies should be classified as noise rather than
words comes from Lickley and colleagues (Lickley 1995; Lickley & Bard 1996), who show
that listeners tend not to be able to accurately identify the locations of fillers in sentences they
have just heard, perhaps because they are produced at a lower fundamental frequency than
the rest of the utterances they are part of (Shriberg & Lickley 1993). But this may not be
very different from the well-known finding that listeners tend to forget the surface forms of
sentences they have heard almost immediately (e.g. Jarvella 1971); there is no reason to
suppose that ‘understanding’ a filler makes its surface form more memorable.
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Brennan and Williams (1995) offer a straightforward demonstration of listener sensitivity to
fillers. They asked listeners to rate answers to general knowledge questions which had been
obtained during their production study. These were digitally manipulated such that they were
sometimes preceded by either a silent pause, or by a silent pause including a filler. Based on
their observation that speakers were more likely to use utterance-initial fillers in cases where
they were uncertain about their answers to general knowledge questions, Brennan and
Williams reasoned that this information might be conveyed to listeners. Accordingly, the
listeners in their study rated the speakers as being less confident about their answers in cases
where the recorded answers were preceded by silence, and less confident still when that
silence contained a filler. On the face of it, this seems to be straightforward evidence that the
ways in which listeners interpret utterances are affected by disfluency. But listeners were
explicitly asked to rate speaker confidence, and it seems equally plausible that they were
simply evaluating speaker performance, based on available evidence. Brennan and Williams’
(1995) study shows that rather than being automatically filtered out, fillers such as uh can
provide a useful source of evidence to listeners, but it does not allow us to conclude whether
they are integral to the meaning of an utterance or whether they are an aspect of its
performance, such as facial gestures (e.g. Swerts & Krahmer 2005) or blushing.
Rather than relying on listeners’ explicit interpretations, several studies on speech
comprehension have focused on the ways in which disfluencies may help listeners as a part of
the ongoing comprehension process. For example, Howell and Young (1991) found that
listeners rated utterances including self-repairs as more comprehensible when those repairs
were preceded by pauses. In an on-line task requiring participants to move a cursor to one of
three geometric shapes, Brennan and Schober (2001) observed that compared to fluent
controls, between-word interruptions (yellow-orange), and mid-word interruptions with or
without fillers (yel-uh-orange, yel-orange) led to quicker identification of the correct (repair)
word (orange). The quickest identifications were in cases where the interruption included a
filler, or a silent pause of the same length. These findings strongly suggest that pauses and
fillers help the identification of upcoming words. In a similar vein, Fox Tree (2001) showed
that both English and Dutch listeners were faster to identify a target word in a carrier
sentence when it followed an uh, in comparison to a control condition without the uh. In a
comparable set of conditions with or without an um there was no effect. Fox Tree suggested
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that different fillers have different effects because they convey information: Uh signals a
shorter upcoming delay than um (as suggested by Clark & Fox Tree 2002). When confronted
with a short (predictable) delay in the speech signal, listeners are able to heighten attention
for upcoming speech; however, in the face of a longer delay signaled by um, heightening
attention would not be functional, since there would be no reason to expect the next word any
time soon.
Although they may seem to suggest that fillers can be communicative, the conclusion that can
be drawn from these studies is rather weaker: They demonstrate that in some circumstances,
fillers such as uh can help the listener perform a particular task, such as responding to a
predetermined target word. In these experiments, the fillers are simply affecting the process
of comprehension: They may for example be improving intelligibility, in the same way that
clear pronunciation does (perhaps in the case of fillers, by separating words). Alternatively,
since the pronunciation of fillers takes time, it may be the delay in the speech signal which
drives listeners’ responses (Brennan & Schober 2001). Fox Tree’s (2001, Experiment 2)
materials, for example, included substantial silent pauses before and after the fillers. In the
case of ums, an average 1004ms silence remained even after the um had been excised,
compared to a 380ms of silence for uh, suggesting that the materials with excised ums may
have been as ‘disfluent’ as those which included them. In Brennan and Schober’s (2001)
study, extra time in the speech signal would have allowed participants more time to prepare a
response, having ruled out the original (yellow) possibility from a limited set of potential
referents. We will revisit the issue of the time taken by disfluencies below. First, we consider
a number of studies which have tried to access the comprehension processes more directly, in
an attempt to establish the effect that disfluencies have when the task is designed to measure
the ongoing comprehension of, rather than the speed of response to, a linguistic stimulus.
To examine whether fillers directly affect comprehension requires a paradigm which is
sensitive to the ongoing comprehension of the acoustic signal the listener encounters. One
such paradigm was used by Barr (2001), who investigated the ways in which participants
moved computer mice in response to spoken instructions. Barr first carried out a production
experiment which established that, when describing an abstract shape that they hadn’t
described before, speakers produced 34% more fillers than when describing one which they
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had previously described (see also Arnold et al. 2003; Arnold & Tanenhaus in press). This is
consistent with the observation that speakers find it more difficult to introduce new items into
the discourse than to speak about old ones (e.g. Almor 1999). In the comprehension stage of
the study, listeners were required to move a mouse cursor to one of two shapes: One which
had twice been previously mentioned, and one which had been shown on-screen but not
referred to in the recorded instructions. When the instructions included an um as opposed to
length-matched background noise, participants were faster to click on the new referent;
moreover, they were likely to begin moving the mouse towards the new referent during the
um before it was described. In a similar vein, Arnold et al. (2004) used an eyetracking
paradigm in which participants responded to spoken instructions to manipulate one of four
objects depicted on a computer display. Of interest in each trial were two of the objects,
which shared a phonological onset (e.g. camel and candle). One of the objects was given,
because it had been mentioned in the previous trial, whereas the other had not been
previously mentioned and was new to the discourse. Arnold et al. manipulated the fluency of
the spoken instructions, such that some instructions included fillers and concomitant signs of
difficulty for the speaker. Where the instructions were fluent, listeners were more likely to
fixate on the given competitor 200-600ms after target onset, or as early as phonetic
information about the two potential targets started to become available (200ms is generally
taken as a lower bound for the planning and execution of an eye movement: e.g. Matin et al.
1993). On the other hand, in cases where the instructions were disfluent, listeners were more
likely to fixate on the new item, indicating that the disfluency had been taken into account,
and a mention of the given item was no longer predicted (see also Arnold et al. 2003). In a
recent extension to this work, Arnold et al. (2007) compared fixations on concrete and
abstract items in fluent and disfluent conditions. They found that disfluency in an utterance
increased fixations on both discourse-new items, and on abstract items which were likely to
be difficult to name (see also Watanabe et al. 2008). Arnold and Tanenhaus (in press) suggest
that both sets of findings can be encompassed by an expectancy hypothesis. Based on
evidence that listeners tend to predict what speakers are likely to say (e.g. Altmann & Kamide
1999), they suggest that the evidence of difficulty in the disfluent instructions leads listeners
to predict an upcoming referent which is difficult for the speaker. When presented visually
with a set of items, hesitation in an utterance prompts the listener to expect, and fixate on, the
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most problematic item. In these experiments, speaker difficulty would correspond either to
discourse status (new items are harder for speakers to mention than old: Almor 1999) or on
the ease with which a name can be found for a picture.
Taken together, Barr’s (2001) and Arnold et al.’s (2004; Arnold et al. 2007) evidence presents
a persuasive picture: Disfluencies which mark hesitation appear to directly affect the
comprehension process. When a spoken message contains a filler, such as um, listeners are
able to make a concrete prediction about what is likely to be mentioned next (and,
importantly, this prediction isn’t arbitrary: It corresponds to the item that is likely to cause the
speaker to become disfluent; e.g. Barr 2001; Schnadt & Corley submitted). However, these
experiments rely on the fact that the listener is visually presented with a limited set of
candidate referents. This gives rise to two issues. First, it may be the case that prediction is
facilitated by disfluency only when the information is freely available (participants in these
experiments always know that one of as few as two items is likely to be mentioned). Second,
it is difficult to determine whether participants are truly predicting anew what the speaker is
likely to say, or whether they are simply abandoning the most likely option. Participants who
responded to hesitations by ‘predicting the difficult referent’ in the Arnold and Barr studies
would behave identically to those ‘ruling out the easy one’.
The first of these issues has been addressed in a series of ERP studies, in which participants
were required to listen to utterances, but there was no secondary task and no associated visual
display of potential referents (Corley et al. 2007; Collard et al. in press). Corley et al. (2007)
focused on the N400, an ERP component associated with the meaningful processing of
language (Kutas & Hillyard, 1980, 1984). Where integration of a written or spoken word into
the preceding context is difficult (for example because that word is not predictable from its
context), it is typical to observe a negative change in voltages recorded at the scalp,
particularly at the crown, relative to more easily integrated words. This difference, the N400
effect, peaks at around 400 ms after word onset. If, as Barr’s (2001) and Arnold et al.’s
(2004) studies suggest, disfluency in an utterance can affect what the listener is predicting,
then the N400 effect should be affected when utterances contain fillers, compared to their
fluent counterparts. In Corley et al.’s study, participants listened to recordings of sentences
that ended with words that were either highly predictable, given their contexts (in pretesting,
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84% of respondents had ended written versions of the sentences with the same words) or not
at all predictable (no respondent had come up with those words, although they still made
sense in context). In line with previous research, there was a reliable N400 effect relative to
target onset for the predictable compared to unpredictable words. Importantly, half of the
materials were disfluent: They included the filler uh, together with other signs of disfluency
such as a lengthening of the word the, just before the target words. Although the N400 effect
remained reliable in these cases, it was significantly reduced, suggesting that the difference in
integration difficulty for unpredictable compared to predictable words had been substantially
affected by disfluency. This evidence does not directly answer the second question of
whether participants were predicting something difficult or had simply stopped predicting
something easy (although a comparison of the ERP plots across conditions hints that the latter
may be the case). However, it does show that disfluency affects the comprehension process,
and most likely processes involved with predicting upcoming information, even in the
absence of relevant visual material.
Note that Corley et al.’s N400 evidence is subject to the same criticism that was made earlier
of studies which show improved reaction times (e.g. Brennan & Schober 2001; Fox Tree
2001): Whereas the attenuation of the N400 shows that disfluency affects the process of
comprehension, that does not mean that the outcome is affected. In order to show that the
differences in N400s were associated with consequences for the way in which the message
was represented, Corley et al. (2007) asked participants to take part in a surprise recognition
study after the listening part of the experiment. In this phase, participants were visually
presented with words which either had or hadn’t been in the experiment, and had to indicate
which of the words they thought they had heard previously. Words which had been preceded
by disfluency when they were initially encountered were more likely to be later recognized,
showing that disfluency in an utterance can have direct consequences for the way in which
the words of that utterance are represented.
The recognition memory effect has since been replicated by Collard et al. (in press).
However, the ERP phase of Collard et al.’s experiment was designed to explore in more detail
the process by which disfluency might render words more memorable. In doing this, they
built on the suggestion by Fox Tree (2001) that disfluency might, in some circumstances at
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least, cause listeners to heighten attention. Instead of the N400 component discussed above,
Collard et al. focused their study on the MMN (early frontal negativity) and the P300
complex (relative positivity maximal 300ms after stimulus onset at the center of the scalp).
The MMN (mismatch negativity) is associated with the detection of change (Schröger 1997);
the P300 refers to a family of components thought to index the orientation of attention and
updating of memory (Polich 2004). Instead of manipulating linguistic predictability, Collard
et al. (in press) used only the predictable targets from Corley et al. (2007), manipulating the
acoustic characteristics of the targets such that half of them were acoustically incongruous
with their contexts. As would be predicted, incongruous targets in fluent stimuli gave rise to
an MMN followed by a large P300 effect: Participants noticed the incongruity, which
subsequently drew their attention. In the disfluent case, an MMN was evident but the P300
effect vanished completely. Collard et al. reasoned that attention was already engaged in
response to the disfluent uh in the stimuli, so that no further orientation of attention could be
observed. Because more attention was paid to the subsequent material, it was more easily
recognized during the surprise recognition tasks in this and in Corley et al.’s (2007) study.
Once attention was engaged, predictive processes (as implicated by Arnold et al. 2004;
Arnold & Tanenhaus in press; Barr 2001; Corley et al. 2007) might be affected.
Taken together, the findings from the studies above demonstrate clearly that listeners’
comprehension can be affected by fillers like um and uh. This would be predicted if these
fillers were used as interjections by speakers, as contended by Clark and Fox Tree (2002).
Note however that this is not the only plausible account of the findings: It could be the case
that speakers produce fillers quite unintentionally (as a byproduct of delay, for example), but
at predictable junctures, and listeners are sensitive to these accidental patterns of occurrence.
In other words, the evidence above is consistent with the view that fillers are words, but does
not rule out other explanations. Because the evidence for the proposition that um and uh are
words is equivocal, we turn our attention to evidence against this position, by considering the
time that fillers take to utter.
Our earlier contention was that fillers might affect listeners not because they are interjections,
like ah and oh, but because they take time (in effect, delaying the continuation of the
utterance). Striking evidence that time may at least be a factor in the comprehension of
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disfluent utterances comes from Bailey and Ferreira (2003). Given that fillers often occur at
phrase boundaries, one function they may serve is to disambiguate syntactic structures, in a
similar way to optional function words such as that in The horse (that) raced past the barn
fell. In a series of studies, Bailey and Ferreira (2003) investigated just such a possibility.
They asked people to rate the grammaticality of spoken sentences such as Sandra bumped
into the busboy and the waiter told her to be careful, which contains a temporary ambiguity
(did Sandra bump into the waiter?). When a disfluency coincided with the start of the second
clause (the uh uh waiter told) participants were more likely to rate the sentence as
grammatical than when the disfluency occurred later in the sentence (the waiter uh uh told),
once again suggesting that the disfluencies were influential in comprehension: Listeners were
more likely to assume that a noun phrase was the start of a new clause if it was disfluent.
Importantly, a replication of this experiment substituted “environmental noise” (dogs barking,
telephones ringing) as plausible interruptions in place of the fillers. Once again, participants
were more likely to rate the utterances as grammatical if the interruption coincided with the
start of the second clause. Although some care in interpretation is warranted, given that
rating for grammaticality and listening for comprehension may engage very different
processes, there is little reason on this evidence to assume a special word-like role for fillers
beyond the time that they add to the utterance. More mixed evidence comes from (as yet
unpublished) experiments run by Lucy MacGregor in our own lab, which replicate Corley et
al. (2007) with silences and disfluent repetitions (the- the dog) in place of the original uhs,
and suggest that the picture is more complex: In those studies, the N400 does not appear to
be greatly affected by repetitions in the utterance, whereas the results for silence are more
equivocal (MacGregor, 2008). Clearly, further investigation is warranted before we are able
to answer just which characteristics of a disfluency allow the listener to recognize it as
disfluent; but the suggestion that time is a factor militates against the proposition that
listeners are sensitive to the particular forms that hesitations take.
Conclusions
Taken together, the studies we have surveyed show that fillers occur in utterances when
speakers are uncertain (Brennan & Williams 1995; Smith & Clark 1993), or when they have
choices to make (Schachter et al. 1991; Schnadt & Corley submitted). They affect the
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comprehension process, facilitating understanding (Brennan & Schober 2001), and allowing
the listener to amend their predictions about what might be said next (Arnold et al. 2004;
Corley et al. 2007) or evaluate the speaker’s confidence in what they are saying (Brennan &
Williams 1995). Although this evidence is consistent with the view that um and uh are
words, other studies suggest that they do not have such a status. Speakers may produce them
automatically when there is a delay to the speech plan (Smith & Clark 1993), and it may be
the case that any plausible interruption to fluent speech will affect listeners in the same way
as a filler (Bailey & Ferreira 2003; Brennan & Schober 2001). One unexplored entailment of
Clark and Fox Tree’s (2002) claim that fillers transmit interpersonal messages is that speakers
must presumably intend to transmit those messages. Evidence that the fillers speakers
produce are designed for their audiences (e.g. are used more when they can inform listeners)
would rule out a simple delay-based hypothesis of filler production, suggesting that speakers
at least have some intentional control over the production of um and uh, in the way that they
have control over the production of other words.
In the absence of such evidence, the picture remains murky. There is no conclusive evidence
that fillers are words. What can be surmised at present is that, like a facial gesture or a tone of
voice, hesitation disfluencies like um provide information to the listener. The information is
something like “pay attention, the speaker’s in trouble and the next part of the message might
not be what you predicted”.
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